Mondraya's+Paper

The city of Herat. [|http://www.omidevatan.com/pic/Herat-City.jpg)]

=Education in Afghanistan: A Case Study=

Mondraya Howard

Afghanistan has had a very conflicted history that has affected its stability and education system. It has many leaders including colonial conquest from the British and Soviet Union. The ethnic conflicts have contributed to its internal warfare and conflict. The education system has been shaped by colonial conquest and its main religion of Islam. Afghanistan's colonial legacy and multiple leaders have affected its ability to become stable. Dost Mohammad seized power in 1826; during this period, Afghanistan had was a center of conflict between rival communities. The Uzbeks and other tribal groups declared their independence and there was a growing rivalry between the British and Russian colonial powers. In attempt to stop the Russian drive toward the Indian Ocean, the British supported Dost Mohammed. He launched a war to capture the city of Peshawar (Afghanistan's former capital) but was defeated by Runjit Singh (the Sikh ruler of Punjab). The British refusal to acknowledge Peshawar as part of Afghanistan, cause Mohammed to turn to Russian aid. As a result, the British invaded Afghanistan in 1839 causing the first Anglo-Afghan war. The British ousted Mohammed and installed Shuja to the throne. Due to Afghan rebellions against Shuja, the British were forced to reinstall Mohammed in hopes that he would protect their interests. Mohammad's successor, Shir Ali improved Afghan ties with the Russian causing another British invasion and the second Anglo-Afghan war. The British gave Shir's son, Yaqub Khan, the throne and he signed the Gandumak Treaty in 1879, turning Afghanistan into a British protectorate. Russian forces occupied the city of Panjden causes the British to mobilize their forces to defend the city. In 1895, the British and Russian made the Anglo-Russian Treaty when "the Russian agreed to halt their advance southward" (Emadi 31). The Russian socialist revolution in 1917 influenced Afghan developments and started anticolonial sentiment in India. Liberal and radical intellectuals wanted independence from the British, which led to the murder of Habibullah, a ruler loyal to the British, in 1919. Habibullah's son Amanullah declared Afghanistan's independence, which led to the third Anglo-Afghan war in 1919. The British lost and on August 8, 1919 signed a treaty that recognized Afghanistan's independence. The years following impendence, Amanullah sought to modernize the social and political institutions. He made a new constitution in 1923 that said equal rights to ethnic communities and stopped slavery. Amanullah embarked on establishing modern communication networks to boost economy and industrialization. The Soviet Union, first to recognize Afghanistan as independent, provided support for its modernization. Amanullah also supported anticolonial movement in India and Pan-Islamic struggles which, along with ties with the Soviet Union, the British viewed as a threat to their domination. They instigated anti-Amanullah unrest by playing on citizens fears of the sudden changes. A rebellion broke out in Khost but it was immediately suppressed. In Amanullah's determination to modernize Afghanistan, he visited European countries and was impressed by their technological, economic and social developments. His policies included modernization of educational, social and political infrastructures and he argued for the equality of women. His strive for modernization upset many tribes because of their conservative religious views. Public unrest and rebellions by Shinwari tribes broke out in 1928. In attempt to stop them, Amanullah closed girls' schools and released prisoners (Emadi 30-33). These are just a few examples of the multiple leaders that Afghanistan has dealt with. Afghanistan has always had an unstable political system; no matter who has the throne, there is always unrest from other ethnic groups. The British has also affected the instability by backing certain rulers and choosing whom to put on the throne. British interventions created much rebellion and strive for Afghanistan's independence. Even after independence, the British continued to intervene with Afghan politics by instigating leaders' overthrows to protect their interests. British colonial power and Afghan's multiple leaders and rebellions have paved the way for the instability of their government.

DATA: School age population. Official entrance age. Total (Taken from UNESCO)

Soviet occupation in Afghanistan changed the educational system causing rebellions and socialist education. In 1978, Noor Mohammed Taraki rose to power; the regime was pro-Soviet. He revamped the educational curriculum in schools and passed a decree that readmitted twenty-five thousand eighth-grade graduates into high schools. He embarked on a society based on Soviet socialism. The National Agency for the Campaign Against Illiteracy and party members forced people to attend literacy classes (Emadi 43). The main goal for educational programs after Soviet occupation was “to inculcate students with Soviet- style socialist ideology (Emadi 214). School curricula was revised to include socialist ideology and historical and dialectical materialism and some students were sent to the Soviet Union for orientation and training. The Russian language was encouraged and entered most curriculums. In 1979, Amin executed Taraki and was elected president. Amin organized Soviet troops to maintain security of the city of Kabul. Instead, Soviet forces already stationed in Kabul stormed Amin, killed him and installed Babrak Karmal and leader. Soviets established a puppet government. In 1989, growing opposition to Soviet occupation from inside and outside Afghanistan and Russian instability to beat U.S- backed militia caused Soviet withdrawal. Soviet presence resulted in many student- protests in 1980’s. The government responded with forced and injured and killed many students. As student demonstrations continued, the government closed schools. Soviet occupation changed educational curriculum to follow socialist- style ruling and their presence resulted in student demonstrations and the closing of several schools. The Soviet educational system differed from earlier systems by the use of public schooling and charges taxes in order to fund these schools. This system created much unrest because it secularized education and upset the conservative, religious population. The educational system in Afghanistan has to main branches: religious education and secular education. Religious education gave guidance in ethics, morality and interaction with others. In the early Islamic era the education system encouraged debates, discussion, argumentation and critical study of subjects. As the result of internal conflicts and war of conquests by imperial powers, the educational system became close minded: “present-day madrasas are firmly rooted in ritual and recitation rather than innovative thinking and critical discourse” (Emadi 210). They do not teach other fields such as mathematics, geography, or physics. Educational main concern is focused on use of proper manners and codes of conduct and religious knowledge through recitation of the Quran. The foundation of modern education started at the beginning of the nineteenth century. They followed British-India and Turkish models. Under Habibullah (1901-1919), madrasa taught Islamic sciences and he added religious studies to public schools. In 1914, he established the Teacher Training College to teach students who completed a six-year schooling period. Modern education increased after independence. Amanullah stressed the importance of public education and made an elementary system that was required and free. To encourage poor families to attend school, the state provided textbooks, pencils and notebooks and for people who learned far distances they provided lodging. Lack of funding for girls’ schools created a coeducational system that admitted females to attend classes with males. The educational program was disrupted Habibullah seized power in 1929 and many schools were closed. Later that year, Nadir seized power and schools were reopened but girls’ schools remained closed. He reopened one girl school to train nurses and midwives. After 1940’s secular education expanded. The primary school system was a six-year period and the curriculum consisted of basic courses to prepare for secondary school. In regions where there was no primary school, there was a three-four year village school. Village schools got funding from private and state agencies and primary, secondary, vocational schools and school of higher education were funded by the state (Enayat 69). Kabul University became operational in 1946, and had schools of medicine, law, economics, education, engineering and pharmacy. Higher education institutions increased along with technical and vocational schools. The educational system has changed with each new ruler and with colonial conquest. Although there have been many systems, the one that has predominant through the years is the religious education system. Religion has played a crucial role in women’s education. Religion plays a vital role in Afghanistan’s society. Women have always been seen as secondary to men; they have to obey their fathers and husbands and their role is to cook, clean and make the next generations. Conservative families do not believe in female education because they do not see the immediate impact of education to improve women’s lives and they saw modern education as a threat to the traditional way of life. Moderate families, on the other hand, see female education as beneficial to society’s development. As said by Aga Khan, a popular religious leader, “by providing means to educate a man, on educates on person and by educating a woman, one educates a family” (Emadi 182). The views of the conservative religious populace have limited the progress of female education. In the 1900’s while boys attending mosque schools; girls obtained their education from elderly women at home. Change and modernity in post-independence period led to economic, social, cultural and educational reforms sought to improve status of women. The state built schools, a hospital and a theater for women. Societal views of women as inferior have branded them as only needed to cook, clean and have children. Religion has limited female education because religious leaders think it’s a waste to educate women. The post-independence movement gave women more opportunities to go not only to primary and secondary schools but college as well. The improvements made for women were soon shattered by Taliban rule. The Taliban used fundamentalist religious views to make an oppression regime in Afghanistan. Taliban means “student of religious students” (Barth 43). Taliban members rose from deeni madrasa schools who taught fundamentalist Islam. Taliban rose to in 1992 by thwarting various armed groups. There goals were to rid the country of factional fighting, restore Islamic ruled and unite and rebuild the country. They took over the city of Kandahar and brought order to its citizens. By bringing order to the city, they gained popularity which made it easier to capture other cities and rule Afghanistan. The deeni madrasa taught rigorous Islamic values and taught students how to fight: students were organized into militant groups and were taught to use force to bring down their opponents. These schools were used as basis to create more Taliban members and followers. The role of women decreased under Taliban rule. Many laws were made: women could not longer attend school or work; women had to wear the burqa and they could not leave the house without a male relative accompanying them. The punishments to these laws were severe and many women were beaten for the smallest offences. The Taliban dismantled the co-educational system and turned all girls’ schools into male schools. Most of the teachers during this era were women, so when women were prohibited from school and work, it not only affected female education but male education also (. The lack of teachers resulted in inefficient schooling. Women were economic status reduced as they were prohibited to work. The Taliban caused years of female suppression which has affected the educational system for both genders. It also added to Afghan’s unstable government by applying an oppression regime. Taliban’s fall in 2001 has giving women back their freedoms and rights. Another branch of Afghanistan’s education system is the education of Afghan refugees. Afghanistan’s history of warfare has caused many people to flee into Pakistan refugee. Refugee families had limited access to basic education and health services. Educated refugees established schools to provide schooling to children and international organizations also opened schools. They established technical schools to help people learn skills to work in Pakistan’s labor market. The Union of Islamic parties created schools based on the Saudi Arabia system which was oriented toward Islamic studies instead of science and technology. Education for girls was not a priority and girls could not attend classes pass fourth grade. To modernize education schools and vocational training centers, based on Aga Khan’s ideas, were established for refugees. Refugees have to turn to the countries their camps are based in for educational services. Education is limited because of the lack of educated members in the camps. This shows the affect of warfare and government instability on Afghans’ education. Present day goals are to stabilize Afghanistan’s government and rebuild society. The goal is to have thirteen million children enrolled in school and spend $3 billion on upgrading education. There needs to be more focus of other subjects other than religious studies, like mathematics, sciences and technology. The illiteracy is very high, more among girls than boys. Although the Taliban is no ruling there is still a conservative religious environment which does not believe in the schooling of girls. The process will have to be gradual but there should be more co-educational schools and vocational schools that will help being technology to Afghanistan. Afghanistan’s history has caused its instability but with help of international organizations it is hoping to improve. The educational system is in a stage of rebuilding, to focus on modernizing Afghanistan and making it economically stable. Although women’s education is limited, it looks to improve with gradual process of societal views.

__Works Consulted__

Ali, Sharifah Enayat. __Cultures of the World Afghanistan__. New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, 2006.

__Afghanistan__ __A Country Study__. Wastington DC: Library of Congress, 1986.

Barth, Kelly. __The Rise and Fall of the Taliban__. New York: Greenhaven Press, 2005.

Emadi, Hafizullah. __Culture and Customs of Afghanistan__. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2005.

Hirschkind, Charles. "Feminism, the Taliban, and Politics of Counter-Insurgency." __Anthropological Quarterly__ 2002 339-354. 13 Nov 2007 http://www.jstor.org/view/00035491/ap000198/00a00080/0.

"News Reports from Afghanistan." __Reproductive Health Matters__ 2001 15-18. 13 Nov 2007 http://www.jstor.org/view/09688080/ap060017/06a00050/0.

"Women's Rights in the Taliban and Post Taliban Eras." __Wide Angle__. PBS. 26 Nov 2007 http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/shows/warlords/print/info.html.